A pint-sized antelope, often no taller than a big coffee-table book, with a squeaky cry and a zig-zagging escape tactic. The source of the river is in the mountainous highlands of East African rift before it eventually drains into the Atlantic Ocean. 2006. Approximately 98% of the annual rainfall occurs from October to April and the long-term annual average (calculated for the period 19182007) is 632 mm (range: 3241160 mm). Others walk over two kilometres to get the precious liquid. doi.org/10.1007/s11269-009-9476-4. Leave a comment 2009; Sigha-Nkamdjou et al. More information on the derivation and interpretation of these statistics can be seen on the FAO Aquastat website. 3B). In Hwange, the vegetation is primarily woodland and bushland and open grassland areas are scarce but often associated with waterhole areas [49]. This index minimises the biases associated with small sample size (prey proportions below 10%), rare food items and non-linearity in proportional use over time [6]. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. The river is fed by two major tributaries (Pende River and Ouham-Pende) and drains into Chari River. 1. Accessed [date you accessed the information]. Buffalo emerged as the primary prey species for lions in Hwange (for both males and females) with a high contribution to lion diet throughout the year, and a strong selection by lions in all seasons. There are a series of parallel faults running northeast/southwest, with displacements that can reach 1000 m, and associated with large volcanic massifs of various ages and compositions. An average of 300 people depend on the water source, says Njounan Tegomo Olivier, WWF Collaborative Management Officer. Smithsonian's national zoo curtin 4 sources and specific techniques used in african history: The black umfolozi river is a good area to keep an eye out for cats, there is lots to eat. The deeper Cretaceous sandstones also form an important aquifer, hydraulically separated from the overlying Plio-Quaternary by mudstones. Groundwater in the deeper Cretaceous sandstone aquifer is dominated by K/Na-HCO3 types, and typically of good quality. Kenya's Water Resources Management Authority (WRMA) is a state corporation under the Ministry of Water and Irrigation established under the Water Act 2002 and charged with being the lead agency in water resources management in the country. 2). Miniature waterfalls sprung up overnight cascading down rocky outcrops and bursting over gullies, only to disappear again at the first sign of sunshine. It was not possible to quantify biomass rigorously from faecal samples, as prey age and sex were not discernible from hair remains. Namib Desert Additionally, giraffe were consumed in proportion to their availability in the early and late dry seasons by female lions, and contributed 18% of biomass to female lion diet. For more information on the map see the, Land Cover Map of Cameroon, from the European Space Agency GlobCover 2.3, 2009. Because of this water activity the front quarters of the Okavango Delta lions are more developed than those of other lions. Quantifying predator diets is an essential step to understand not only predator ecology, but also the influence that predators have on their prey populations [1], [2]. The uppermost sandy layer is hydraulically connected with brackish waters in the Wouri estuary, and saline waters of the coastal wetlands. Kill investigation to study carnivore diet is biased towards larger species that are easier to detect using GPS data since predators will stay longer at a the kill of a larger prey animal, and using carcasses alone clearly underestimates the number of feeding events on small species, sometimes up to 50% [3], [4]. Chambers One, 27 Willie van Since the 1980s, the government has followed policies of structural adjustment and privatisation lauded by international donors and development partners. Positional data were recorded hourly during the night and retrieved at regular intervals. Lake Jipe provides water for the wildlife species in the park like the lions, elephants and among others when they are thirsty. The rural population largely relies on groundwater for water supply, through springs, hand dug wells, and boreholes equipped with hand pumps (Ako Ako et al. In Hwange, previous findings have shown that lion home range size was influenced by buffalo density in the late dry season ([40]). They fill small basins at the base of trees or or in natural depressions in the landscape with rainwater or snow melt. Unfortunately, it is also a country where wildlife is subject to a wide and intense array of human pressures. The basin is shared by Chad, Niger, the Central African Republic, Nigeria, Cameroon, Algeria, Sudan and Libya. Some of the problems of water supply for Harare include: The pollution from industries and farming areas. They however went dysfunctional and the community faced a serious water crisis. Once biomass consumption was estimated, buffalo contributed the most to lion dietary intake (58% for males and 39% for females), followed by elephant (23% for males and 20% for females) and giraffe (7% for males and 18% for females), collectively accounting for 88% and 77% of the prey biomass consumed for males and females respectively (Table 3). The source of the river is in the mountainous highlands of East African rift before it eventually drains into the Atlantic Ocean. The two aquifers are separated by mudstones of the Nkappa formation. Jacobs indices revealed that lions of both sexes kill their prey preferentially within 2 km from a waterhole for all prey species except small antelopes (Fig. The study was conducted between 2005 and 2007 in the northern sector of Hwange National Park (Hwange), north-western Zimbabwe, latitudes 1830 and 1950 S and longitudes 2545 and 2730 E. The study area covers c. 7554 km2 of dystrophic woodland savanna. Small antelopes contributed 1% to lion diet by relative biomass consumed. More information on average rainfall and temperature for each of the climate zones in Cameroon can be seen at the Cameroon climate page. feeding locations) of African lions (Panthera leo) in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, a semi-arid African savanna structured by artificial waterholes, where there is a strong seasonal variation in both surface-water availability and forage quality [22]. Generally, flow patterns of all Cameroon rivers are typified by rainfall. : 19 192 m3/year, Per Capita in 2005 As in data were modified to ensure consistency with water resources data. David W. Macdonald, Contributed equally to this work with: 1998). broad scope, and wide readership a perfect fit for your research every time. _____ _____ what are the seasonal changes to these water sources? Whiskers indicate the range between 10% and 90% percentiles. 1). Some of the most mineralised groundwater is in volcanic aquifers, but the most mineralised are springs in the Mamf basin that are related to evaporites. For each season, we also calculated the availability of each distance-to-water category in the study area. Most often asked questions related to bitcoin. Cameroons location on the atlantic coast in central africa between latitude 2 and 13north, has a huge and diversified water resources potential. Groundwater from volcanic aquifers is widely used by the bottled water industry. Lions are stalk-and-ambush hunters that use vegetative cover for concealment during hunting [43] and are known to ambush prey in habitats surrounding high-prey abundance areas [44]. Africa Groundwater Atlas >> Hydrogeology by country, Cameroon. Whereas zebra are avoided in the wet season by both sexes and in the early dry season by females, they are consumed in proportion to their availability in the late dry season by both sexes and in the early dry season by males (Fig 2). Molua EL and Lambi CM. Across-ecosystems, comparisons of large mammalian carnivore diet have now provided a good understanding of the preferred prey weight range of several carnivore species [6][8], but local studies are still needed to unravel the role of environmental factors and prey availability. Chari has a length of 590 miles, part of which forms international border between Chad and Cameroon. Park, Cameroon, in 2008 through an interview survey water downstream during this.! Our entire household has been drinking from this source for many years. Climate, Hydrology and Water Resources in Cameroon. Map developed from World Wildlife Fund HydroSHEDS; Digital Chart of the World drainage; and FAO Inland Water Bodies. Cameroon has a dense network of perennial rivers. Conservation of the trees around this water source has helped to keep it flowing. Trees, grasses and bushes were heavy with raindrops and the bushveld was resonant with the noise of water dripping, flowing and surging. 1). Twelve-year-old Akoela Francis Kame and his younger brother walk one-kilometer each day to fetch water here. The deeper aquifer is confined by the intervening clays, which is widely used for industry and domestic supplies in Douala (Mafany and Fantong 2006). We thank Matt Hayward, Craig Tambling and two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on a previous draft. 3A). Further, it revealed the opportunistic hunting behaviour of lions for prey as diverse as elephants and mice, with elephants taken mostly as juveniles at the end of the dry season during droughts. A particularly beautiful and bountiful antelope with distinctive colouring, horns that outline a heart shape and immaculate white tummies, despite the dust. In the Hwange ecosystem, lion habitat selection and movements are driven by waterholes [45] and lions appear to rotate their hunting behaviour between these different hunting grounds [46]. 2). Sightings of Lion in the Hluhluwe Umfolozi vary according to various factors. They can survive days or even weeks without drinking water. Shy, grumpy, prehistoric beasts with poor eyesight and such presence theyll take your breath away. This is due to the lower contribution of buffalo to female diet in the early dry season which is compensated by an increase in other species consumption (Table 1). United Nations Department of Technical Cooperation for Development and Economic Commission for Africa, Natural Resources/Water Series No. Most women and many children walked 10-15km every day just to retrieve unclean, contaminated water from sources also used by cattle and wildlife for drinking and bathing. They rely on some of the Kalahari's plants that have also adapted to the dry conditions and either store water or have mechanisms to prevent excess water loss. Vernal pools are a type of wetlands - sometimes resembling larger puddles. Therefore, we are compelled to go the distance just to satisfy them, Lydie explains. What Are The Specific Water Sources The Lions Exploit. First, seasonal importance of each species was assessed by (i) investigating, for lion males and females separately, the frequency of occurrence of prey species at kills, and (ii) comparing seasonal results from faecal data with no sex differentiation. (I accept). The importance of buffalo was more pronounced for male lions, which corroborates findings from other studies [39]. Then-Gov. Surface water. This aquifer is not vulnerable to saline intrusion (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Little is known of the Cretaceous lower aquifer, which is composed of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire, with fossil and highly mineralized groundwater (GWP 2013). Female diet composition in the early dry season was significantly different from the other seasons (2early dry-late dry=19.06, df=7, p=0.008; 2early dry-wet=20.34, df=7, p=0.005; 2late dry-wet=14.07, df=7, p=0.05). Etosha Some urban centres widely use groundwater, including Douala. The Project was supported by the Eppley Foundation, Panthera Foundation and the kind generosity of Rivington and Joan Winant, Adrian Gardiner and the Lilian Jean Kaplan Foundation. In African semi-arid savannas, surface-water is a heterogeneously distributed, limiting resource which becomes scarcer as the dry season progresses. Water Resources Management 24(5), 871888. Average distance-to-water revealed that lions typically kill between 1 and 4 km from a waterhole, with elephant and giraffe being the species killed most often the closest to a waterhole, and kudu and small antelopes killed the furthest away (Fig. More information is available in the report Groundwater in North and West Africa: Cameroon (1988) (see References section, below). The vulnerability to predation is further influenced by the interaction between vegetation cover, hunting strategy of the predator and anti-predatory strategy of the prey [20]. Please see the Terms of use for more information. During this time game sightings were spectacular. The river has been exploited by local communities for transport, fish, and water for irrigation. In the 19th century, soldiers of the Fulani Empire founded the Adamawa Amirate in the north of present-day Cameroon, while various other chiefdoms held power across other parts of the country. Some years back some boreholes were rehabilitated by either the local council or the community. 2009). Groundwater quality in Cameroon and its vulnerability to pollution. Igiene e sanita pubblica, 71(1), 21-37. The upland regions have highland forest type vegetation. Some - eg Mamf - contain evaporites. Mambele, situated some 800 km from the nations capital Yaounde, is one of 21 communities around Lobeke with over 23000 inhabitants. Rural population with access to safe drinking water (%), Urban population with access to safe drinking water (%), Population affected by water related disease, Total internal renewable water resources (cubic metres/inhabitant/year), Total exploitable water resources (Million cubic metres/year), Freshwater withdrawal as% of total renewable water resources, Total renewable groundwater (Million cubic metres/year), Exploitable: Regular renewable groundwater (Million cubic metres/year), Groundwater produced internally (Million cubic metres/year), Fresh groundwater withdrawal (primary and secondary) (Million cubic metres/year), Groundwater: entering the country (total) (Million cubic metres/year), Groundwater: leaving the country to other countries (total) (Million cubic metres/year, Industrial water withdrawal (all water sources) (Million cubic metres/year), Municipal water withdrawal (all water sources) (Million cubic metres/year), Agricultural water withdrawal (all water sources) (Million cubic metres/year), Irrigation water withdrawal (all water sources), Irrigation water requirement (all water sources), Cultivated land (arable and permanent crops) (ha), Area equipped for irrigation by groundwater (ha), Area equipped for irrigation by mixed surface water and groundwater (ha). Sightings of lion in the hluhluwe umfolozi vary according to various factors. Jacobss indices based on kills also revealed that female lions showed also a preference for kudu, medium Bovidae and Suidae in all seasons (Fig. Recharge occurs to the confined aquifer only in limited areas (GWP 2013). Bundesanstalt fr Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe (BGR). spesification Your email address will not be published. The main rivers in the south of the country are the Ntem, Nyong, Sanaga, and Wouri, which flow southwestward or westward into the Gulf of Guinea. Chari provides an outstanding home for some fish species including nile and perch, making it an important fishing ground for many local communities. 2020 WWF - World Wide Fund For Nature 1986 Panda Symbol WWF World Wide Fund For Nature (formerly World Wildlife Fund) WWF is a WWF Registered Trademark Creative Commons license. Cameroon has a dense network of perennial rivers. 2017) and organic pollution (Sanou et al. Tsavo National Park - Encyclopedia Britannica, 2011. Jane E. Hunt, and common mice (Mus spp.). In neighbouring Yenga community (20 km from Mambele) where WWF also rehabilitated a stand tap, some residents cover a distance of more than 3 km to get water. Mambele residents have been drinking from this never-drying source for as long as the local residents can remember. However, water quality in Cameroon has improved in the last decade. Some urban centres widely use groundwater, including Douala. An improved water source over this period for resources leads to infanticide- the practice of killing others! The prey items detected were categorised similarly to the prey detected from the kills. Cameroon also has a number of smaller lakes throughout the country. Do sloths kill themselves by grabbing their arms; In botswana lions take to the water regularly, lions do hunt elephant and hippo and in some areas of the country lions can go for moths without drinking water. In recent years, the former National Water Supply Company of Cameroon (SNEC: Socit Nationale des Eaux du Cameroun) was privatised to create the national water utility company, Cameroon Water Utilities Corporation (CAMWATER), which has responsibility for public water supplies in urban areas. Zeke Davidson, Lion kills were located in a preferentially selected "zone" around artificial waterholes, suggesting that these scarce resources form passive traps for ungulate prey. e55182. As a country in Africa, Cameroon is situated just between the Central and Western Regions of Africa. feeding locations) of African lions in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, a semi-arid African savanna structured by artificial waterholes. Seasonal Water Sources; Seasonal Water Sources. The consequence of consumption of such poor quality water is the spread of related diseases such as cholera and typhoid. Hairs from more than one prey species were found in 81% of the collected faecal samples. Composed mainly of Cretaceous marine sandstones and limestones, which are 1000 to 2000 m thick. 2009). Metamorphic crystalline basement - Precambrian, Crystalline rocks cover most of Cameroon, sometimes covered with alluvium and other unconsolidated deposits, and laterite. Y Xu and B Usher, Taylor and Francis/Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 47-55. Jacobs indices based on faecal data are closer to those for females based on kill data, which is to be expected as most faecal samples were collected at female kill sites. This allows conversations they can hear for 100km further than normal. Boreholes. The Lake Chad basin contains three main geological units: a upper Quaternary-Lower Pliocene series; the Tertiary Continental Terminal; and the lower Cretaceous series of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire (GWP 2013). Copyright: 2013 Davidson et al. Dashed and dotted lines indicate mean proportions in the amalgamated kills for males and females respectively. 23 Views. Furthermore, juvenile elephants were selected by female lions in the wet season. Windhoek We investigated whether there is a seasonal shift of prey preference (use vs. availability) suggestive of different foraging strategies in different seasons. As such, the regular need to access drinking water constrains the movement of herbivores, and hence their distribution in the dry season [9][12]. Frequency of use (in both kills and faeces) and selection index of kudu in the early dry season highlight the importance of this species to lion female diet. There is a coastal plain that extends 15-150 km inland; the south Cameroon plateau that rises from the coastal plain to more than 600 m; the Cameroon chain of mountains, hills and plateaus that extends from Mount Cameroon on the coast (Cameroon's highest point at 4,095 m) almost to Lake Chad on the northern border; the Adamawa Plateau in the centre of the country, with an average elevation of 1,100 m; and a northern lowland region, which extends from the edge of the Adamawa Plateau to Lake Chad, with an elevation of around 300 m. The climate varies across the country, controlled by topography. 2009. (A) Mean distance to a waterhole for kills for the different prey species. The dominant land cover in the northern lowland region is savanna scrub and grass. The Lake Chad basin aquifer contains three main aquifer units: a upper Quaternary-Lower Pliocene series; the Tertiary Continental Terminal; and the lower Cretaceous series of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire (GWP 2013). It is located in rural area. Our results showed that lions are opportunist hunters with prey ranging from mice to elephant. Lions were one of those species which were not spared from the curiosity of the world. Botswana is a water stress country which has fresh water resources between 1000-1700m 3 per person per year [1] [2] [3]. Andrew J. Loveridge, Please cite this page as: Upton, Dochartaigh & Bellwood-Howard, 2018. Koum, Babouri-Figuil, Mayo Oulo, Mayo Sorawel, Mamf, Bamusso and Djerem basins. Where multi-species classes were defined, biomass was calculated as the average mass of the species included. Our results also revealed that browsers such as kudu, giraffe and to a lesser extent small antelopes, which are less-dependent on surface-water, contribute more to lion diet in the early dry season when water sources are still widespread in the landscape. Citation: Davidson Z, Valeix M, Van Kesteren F, Loveridge AJ, Hunt JE, Murindagomo F, et al. Your use of information provided by this website is at your own risk. What are the water sources of Cameroon? There are a number of natural lakes in Cameroon. Groundwater in North and West Africa: Cameroon. The northern lowland region is relatively arid, with low rainfall and high temperatures. In both rural and urban areas, people suffer because of the poor water quality in Cameroon. We recognise that there may have been a small number of instances where lions scavenged other predators kills, however, we assume this to be negligible based on our kill site classification methodology. Was established in 1996 and it is managed by the pvt. 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